The Major Senses

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The Major Senses

Introduction

Humans have five major senses which have physiological capabilities in organisms which provide data perception. The major senses are ophthalmoception for sight, audioception for hearing, gustaoception for taste, alfacoception for smell, and tactioception for touch. Other additional senses that provide perception for pain, balance, motion, acceleration, temperature, and direction can also be included.

Vision or sight is the ability of the eyes to focus and detect images that radiate light. The photoreceptors found in the retina generate electrical nerve impulses that differentiate hues, brightness, and colour. Rods and cons are the two types of photoreceptors with the former being sensitive to light and the latter distinguishes colours. Some neuroanatomists regard these as two separate senses in the perception of colour and brightness. Stereopsis can also be argued to be another sense that perceives depth using the two eyes, although, commonly regarded a cognitive function of the visual cortex within the brain where patterns and images are synthesized or interpreted. Blindness may be caused by damages in the eyeballs, optic nerves, or from the effects of a stroke. Medications or poisons can give rise to temporary blindness.

Audition or hearing is concerned with perceiving sound which is all about vibration. Mechanoreceptors convert sound vibrations into electrical nerve pulses. Age affects hearing at high frequencies, and deafness is the inability to hear (Boring, 12)

Gustation is the ability to detect taste of different substances like food through sensory organs known as taste buds or gustatory calyculi. These sensory organs can detect sweetness, bitterness, umami, saltiness, or sourness.

Oflactory receptors neurons are responsible for detecting smell, and found in the nose. The odour molecules uses a combination of excitatory signals generated from a variety of receptors that perceives molecule’s smell, and anosmia is the condition of inability to smell.

Somatosensory is a perception that comes from the activation of neural receptors that detect touch on the skin. These receptors respond to pressure variations, and numbness maybe caused by nerve damage.

Adaptation

Sensory adaptation is the manner in which people get used to things in life such as smell, sound, situations, games, sights, and many more. When a stimulation presentation is repeated reduces the sensitivity to that stimulation. It is the human senses that adapt to a particular situation, for example, background noises generally fades away after a while since the ear will be used to the constant stimulus. Another example, could be on entering a stinky room, one would be uncomfortable for the first few minutes and gets used to it after a while.

The sensory receptors stop signalling the presence of a particular stimulus, and this adaptation is good since it allow one to forget the constant stimuli, and helps you to ignore the stimuli that does not change in the environment. Adaptation essentially makes one to concentrate on the reference point. Sensory adaptation allows one to find a balance within its environment and effectively respond to changes. Lack of sensory adaptation is where one experiences variations in sensory processing and perception, and the constant stimuli will not change, for example, difficulty in adapting to changes in light intensity may result into strain, stress, and headaches.

The Receptive Field

The receptive field is a body surface area where a stimulus triggers a reflex or the specific receptors that feeds the nervous system through a cell, with some intervening synapses. Each sensory system has a different sensory surface. For vision it is the retina, hearing it is the inner ear, taste is the tongue, smell is the nasal passage, and touch is the skin.

For vision, it will be an area in the retina where optic nerve fiber has the receptive field. The retinal ganglion cells receptive fields comprises of inputs from a variety of rods and cons that helps in detecting contrast, and object edges. The visual cortex has larger and complex stimulus requirements for receptive fields as compared to retinal ganglion cells (Boring, 125)

Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, attitudes, and skills. It may also include modifying existing knowledge, behaviours, values or preferences. Generally, learning consists of synthesizing different types of information, and it progresses over a period of time that can be illustrated by the learning curves. People may learn as part of education, personal development, training, or schooling which is goal oriented and must be aided by some kind of motivation. Learning may also occur as a form of habituation or classical conditioning, where learning is a progressive diminution of behavioural responses with repeated stimulus. It could also be as sensitization which is non associative; in this case learning is a result of progressive amplification of synaptic responses which follows repeated stimulus (McKeeff, & Tong, 669-678).

There are many other types of learning such as imprinting, observational learning, play, enculturation, episodic learning, multimedia learning, augmented learning, meaningful learning, tangential learning, and many more forms of learning. Learning results into a change of behaviour through experience, and can occur at a neural level that gives evidence that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed during gestation. Learning is considered to be relatively permanent (Needham, 56)

Habituation and sensitization

This is a kind of a learned behaviour where habituation is decreased response to a particular repeated stimulus, while sensitization is the the direct opposite. People are programmed to respond to novelty. This kind of orienting response that makes people turn towards new events. Habituation may be seen in the example where you make an unusual sound in the presence of a familiar dog, at first it will respond by turning its head, if the sound is repeated and nothing unusual happens to the dog, it will stop responding to the sound, maybe because of fatigue or sensory adaptation which is always long lasting.

Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 1.

An example of sensitization if sea slug’s siphon is gently touched, it will withdraw its gill for a small period of time, if this is followed by an electric shock to its tail, an equal amount of gentle touch will make the animal to exhibit a longer period of withdrawal. This is a kind of short run memory. If the sea slug is sensitized by many shocked administered over many days, the response to the gentle touch will be much larger and retained longer. Both habituation and sensitization are respondent conditional processes, concerned with reflexes and operant learning. They are useful when working with fear issues which are related to responses that change ones biological condition characterized by increased respiration and heart rate. They do not however, involve learning new responses and responding to new stimuli.

Learning Theories

Numerous learning theories have been developed over the last centuries that apply to educational learning. Many theories and theorist have derived many methods related to learning and teaching styles, the most notable theories include the social cognitive theory, and behaviourist theories such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Social cognitive theory states that a part of ones knowledge acquisition is directly related to his observing others within the same conditions of social interactions, experiences, and other media influences. For an individual to be motivated to learn certain behaviour, then that learning outcome will be learned better by observation.

Environment, behaviour, and cognition mixed with observing others are reciprocal factors that affect people learning which are neither static nor dependent. Behaviourism concentrates on the principle of stimulus response, and responding to external stimuli is described by operant conditioning that states that behaviours that are reinforced will continue while those that are punished will soon end. Reflexive or automatic learning is described by classical conditioning where a stimulus is able to evoke a response that was earlier evoked by another stimulus.

Behaviourists Learning

Behaviourism theories assume that the learner is passive who his responding to environmental stimuli, usually referred to as tabula rasa. The learner begins as an empty tin, and behaviour is shaped by both positive and negative reinforcements. C. Lloyd Morgan, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Clark L. Hull are some of the founders and developers of behaviourism. They believe that behaviour is some kind of materialism, which denies independent significance for the mind. The theories play significant role in psychological treatment especially pharmacological therapy. The basic assumption in these theories is that free will is illusory, and environment through association or reinforcement determines behaviour. They also believe that when behaviour is observed provides the most convenient way of investigating mental and psychological processes. Studies done by behaviourist are very reliable as they insist on approaches and methods that are objective, controlled variables, and precise measurements.

Stage Model of Memory

Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. The stage model of memory explains the basic structure and function of memory as having three stages: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Sensory memory is where sensory information from the surrounding is stored for a very short period of time like paying attention. Active memory is short term memory is the information you currently thinking of, while long term memory is the continuing storage of information.

Where Memories are kept

Memories are kept in many places in the brain depending on the type of memory, with hippocampus and prefrontal cortex being the two major areas. Subjective remembering depends on factors: Memory are made in line with present needs, desires, and influences; memories are accompanied by feelings and emotions, and memory involves the awareness of memory.

Materialists believe that thinking is a set of behaviours while cognitive psychologists think that the brain works like a computer. Freudian model poses that traumatic experiences are stored in the unconscious area to be part of long term memory. Neuroscientists take it that memory is a set of encoded neural connections which go across all parts of the brain, the stronger the connection the higher the memory. Other models consider memory as a present act of consciousness stimulated by an analogue of an engram for the day to day recordings in the short term memory. Forgetting may occur due to weak encoding, and a lack of retrieval cue. All types of forgetting may be considered as amnesia which can be caused by brain injuries, effects of drug or alcohol, and physical or psychological traumas. Therefore, bits and pieces of any one memory is stored in different networks of neurons all across the brain. Formation and recall is affected by mood, environment, and the circumstances at the time of retrieval or formation

Thinking

Thinking is a sought of reflection or rational reasoning and thought can be considered as judgement clear thinking. Thinking involves having a conscious mind with some reasoning, remembering experiences, and making rational decisions. Thinking can be considered as cognition with a collective set of mental abilities, the mind’s internal goal driven activities, manipulation of ideas and knowledge, concept formation, problem solving, decision making, expertise development, and is linked to language. Thinking is any mental activity that consists of one’s subjective consciousness that results into ideas or arrangement of ideas. Therefore, most psychologists take that thinking is an intellectual exertion for finding and solutions to problems

Problem Solving

Problem solving is a set of mental processes which consists of discovering, analyzing, and solving problems to overcome huddles and reaching the optimal solution that best resolves a particular issue. The unique situation largely affects the problem solving strategy, some situations call for creativity and insight. In other cases people learn better everything about an issue then use factual knowledge to reach a solution. Problem solving involves seven steps namely: identifying the problem and defining the problem, analyzing the problem, identifying possible solutions, selecting the best solutions from alternatives, evaluating the solutions, developing an action plan, and implementing the solution.

The goal must be properly defined and the starting point must be clear to know when the problem has been solved. An example could be solving algebraic problems. If the goal is not well defined, it is very difficult to know if the solution has been found. Many problems in life are due to ill defined goals, otherwise many people would know the secret to happy living.

Fixation and Functional Fixedness

To solve a problem one needs to understand the information given and how it can potentially be used. There are certain obstacles that can be encountered when solving problems. These can be fixation or functional fixedness. Fixation is attempting to solve a problem using a prior strategy without looking at things from a different perspective. Functional fixedness is the tendency to see objects and the purpose in fixed and typical ways. This can also be considered as the failure to restructure the way one thinks about the elements in the problem.

Cognitive bias is evident in functional fixedness, and the concept originated in Gestalt psychology that emphasises holistic processing. (Dunker, 1945) defined functional fixedness as a mental block, like not being able to use a hammer in any other way apart from pounding nails. This idea blocker that prevents someone from seeing the solution to a problem that stresses them in the face. The mental and environmental blocks can be categorized as : internal blocks; emotion, reflection, and judgemental; perception stereotype, isolate problem, and assumptions; intellectual languages and senses; visual , verbal, mathematical, and musical expressions; external blocks; culture play, intuition, taboos, and humour; environment climate, support, space, and reward.

A technique for overcoming functional fixedness is analogue transfer where students show performance in problem solving after certain analogies are presented in some structure and format. Presenting a single analogy rather than a narrative facilitates positive transfer

Problem Solving Strategies

There are two main kinds of strategies to problem solving, these are use of algorithms and heuristics approach. Algorithms involve step by step procedures that insure a solution is reached especially in mathematical computations and anagrams. Heuristics are like a rule of the thumb that is very efficient, but solutions are not guaranteed. Problem solving in cognitive sense describes mental processes that assist people to discover, analyze, and solve problems. These processes involve certain steps to discover the problem, decide to tackle the issue, understand the problem, research on available options, and take actions to achieve the goals. The different mental processes in problem solving comprises the following: perceptually recognising the problem, representing the problem in memory, considering relevant information regarding the problem, identifying different aspects of the problem, and describing and labelling the problem.

Algorithm strategy of problem solving is never practical in some situations because of the time consuming nature. Heuristic approach allows one to simplify complex problems, and reducing the amount of possible solutions to more manageable levels. Other strategies include trial and error which is good but have very little options and insight approach where the problem solution appears as a sudden insight, with mental processes leading to insights occurring outside of awareness.

Problems or obstacles arise in problem solving that adds flaws such as functional fixedness, irrelevant or misleading information. Wrong assumptions and the mental set where people tend to use only solutions that have worked in the past. The following diagram illustrate simplex problem solving model.

Intelligence Dimensions

The two dimensions of intelligence are fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence involves the ability to solve novel problems; possessing skills that require reasoning, seeing relationships, and inferences. It offers solutions that are free from cultural influences, and gets better with age. Crystallized intelligence is knowledge derived from experiences and formal learning, and includes general facts, vocabulary, reading, and mathematics. It continues to increase with age (Macaluso, 282-297).

Both of these dimensions are factors of general intelligence, fluid intelligence is concerned with inductive and deductive reasoning for logical problem solving. Crystallized intelligence is concerned with general knowledge or intellectual lifetime achievement of a person. These dimensions are correlated and are applied in IQ tests. Where fluid intelligence measures performance scale and crystallized intelligence measures verbal scale. These types of intelligence are needed in all situations, when solving a statistical problem, fluid intelligence will assist in coming up with a strategy while crystallized intelligence will be concerned with formula recall. Both intelligences increase through childhood and adolescence. Raymond Cartel developed fluid intelligence while Raymond Cartel; is credited with developing the crystallized intelligence.

Development

Development refers to psychological systematic changes and discontinuities that occur to individuals from conception to death. There are three main domains of development namely cognitive, physical, and psychosocial. Cognitive developments how people acquire, develop, and use mental processes in problem solving, memory, motor skills, and language acquisition. Physical development is concerned with physical maturation of one’s body. Psychosocial development investigates how people develop emotional and social competencies, for example how children make friendships.

Stages of prenatal development are: germinal period from conception to when the zygote implants in the uterus wall, embryonic period is when the heartbeat and sexual differentiation begins, and fetal period occurs in the last three months (Shepherd, 23-30)

Effects of Alcohol

Drinking has side effects, moderate drinking may show some significant problems, while heavy drinking is associated with physical and facial deformities. Sometimes the effects of alcohol could be fatal, and others cause blurred vision, slurred speech, impaired memory, and slowed reaction times.

The endocrine System

The endocrine system is a system of glands that secrets hormones into the blood system to regulate the body, it is an information system similar to the nervous system. The effects of the endocrine system are slow to initiate and have longer response time.

There are three main types of endocrine systems: pituitary gland considered as the master gland that control other glands, and it is controlled by the hypothalamus which produces growth hormone; sexual maturation glands produces testes androgens like testosterone, and ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone; and the thyroid gland that stimulates energy consumption and body oxygen (Atema, 57–101).

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Moral development is mainly concerned with justice, and continues throughout an individual’s life span. They are six stages grouped into three levels: Preconvention stage based on consequences and external rules such as do not steal, you will be punished; Conventional stage based on social order and internalized values such as do not steal, it is against the law and it is immoral to break the law; and post conventional based on abstract principles and justice such as do not steal, if there is no rule of law the society will fall into chaos.

Major Divisions of the Brain Hemispheres

The largest division of the brain known as the cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, the right and the left hemispheres, and are separated by a longitudal fissure known as the corpus callosum. hemispheres is separated into four lobes. The left hemisphere coordinate language, while the right controls mathematics and music. The diagram below gives the overall view of brain structures known as the lobes of the brain.

Sensation and Perception

Sensation is the detection of a stimulus in the external environment, and then transmission of that information to the brain. Perception is the integration, organisation, and interpretation of sensation or sensory information which results into a meaningful interpretation of the environment (Macaluso, 282-297).

Conclusion

Psychology generally studies the human mind by analysing various behaviours using concepts such as cognition, emotion, perception, brain functioning, and personality. Various concepts of learning theory and states of consciousness are studied in relation to biological perspective. Therefore, it helps to predict human behaviour.

References

Atema, Jelle (1980) “Chemical senses, chemical signals, and feeding behavior in fishes” p. 57–101.

Shepherd GM (2004). The Human Sense of Smell: Are We Better Than We Think? PLoS Biol 2(5):

Macaluso, E. (2010). Orienting of spatial attention and the interplay between the senses. Cortex, 46(3), 282-297.

McKeeff, T. J., & Tong, F. (2007). The timing of perceptual decisions for ambiguous face stimuli in the human ventral visual cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 17(3), 669-678.

Boring, G. (1942). Sensation and perception in the history of experimental psychology.

Oxford, England: Appleton-Century. xv 644 pp.

Matlin, W. (1988). Sensation and perception (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA, US: Allyn & Baconxii pp 540-546