Educational, social and economic reforms

Educational, social and economic reforms

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Describe the progressive movement in terms of social development and educational changes. Give specific attention to the educational theories spawned at this time, and to the proponents of each theory. Explain the extent of their success and/or failure.

During early years of the twentieth century, United States faced a lot of problems ranging from economic, social and cultural changes. Consequently, Americans had to devise ways of coping with the aforementioned challenges that were brought by modernization. A reform movement was therefore formed in the U.S. to counter the problems. Even though the progressives had a universal feeling that the government had to be involved in entirety in solving the problems, they had differed in their perception of the problems as well as the approach to solve them. Modernization enhanced the availability of scientific knowledge on human nature which prompted the Social progressives to demand modification of the moral values as well as the social norms across the United States. The universal idea of delivering social justice to all Americans via quality education culminated to education progressivism. Educational progressives believed that humans were social animals hence could learn best in company of other people. This was in line with John Dewey’s theory of learning that emphasized on learning through real world experience and not a mere reading and drilling of the students. Dewey is one of the proponents of the social justice system that revolutionized education system in the U.S. He argued that children should be taught based on the four aspects of education including intellectual, artistic, moral as well as social facets (Berube, 2008). Moreover, he recommended learning through experience as the best learning style. In his constructivism theory, Dewey argued that students built knowledge through their ways of thought as well as experience, concepts that are necessary in any scientific discovery. Dewey’s contribution to the education system in the U.S has since taken the country storm as reforms in the system are stunning (Berube, 2008).

2. Survey and evaluate the efforts to expand educational opportunities and provide equal educational justice to all children during the Great Depression and through the era of World War II. Be sure to discuss New Deal programs in detail, showing how each effort did or did not help the specific group for whom a remedy was intended.

Stakeholders in the U.S education sector have done commendable work in expanding the education system so as to create educational opportunities to all the students irrespective of their race, class or origin. To begin with, the Southern States formulated a plan that was meant to enhance unbiased access to education by both the white and African American students. The plan dubbed ‘Freedom of choice desegregation plan’ aimed at allowing the African American students access to the white-man schools without discrimination. Delkab County School for instance adopted the system in early 60s. However, this system had little success as few Africans managed to join the White man’s institutions (Manzer, 2003). Besides, the government formed Liberal legislation initiatives such as the National and immigration Act of 1965 in an attempt to allow access to education by immigrants from other countries other than U.S. Such legislation had a remarkable success as the number of international students from Caribbean as well as African American increased tremendously. Moreover, through increased globalization, upgrading education to international standards as well as increased access to information about educational institutions in the U.S. the students are motivated (Manzer, 2003). This legislation was preceded by legislation on the universal right of students. In 1948 education was included as a universal right in the declaration of the aforementioned year on human rights. This facilitated access to education by all the students regardless of student’s affiliation. Additionally, the introduction of free education to all opened the avenue for education access by students who were unable to afford cost of education. Each state was expected to provide public schooling service to its citizens after the reconstruction following the World War 11. Generally, the aforementioned initiatives led to enormous increase in the number of students accessing education in the U.S.

3. The education of the minority population in American has been problematic. Discuss the education of African Americans from colonial times to the present. Include the debate between Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois. Describe problems that have been resolved and those that continue to exist. In addition, describe the shifting attitude towards education Native Americans. Do you think the problem of providing adequate educational services to these groups has been resolved effectively? Why or why not?

Unlike their counterparts such as the Jews, African Americans have been denied their basic rights in the U.S since colonial times until reconstruction. Provision of equal education services to the African Americans is one such basic right the group has been denied since colonial times. To begin with, in the late 1980s, a group of urban school districts carried out a research to analyze the performance of the African American males in the United States education institutions. Such an institution is the Milwaukee public school which presented horrible statistics of the group achievements. According to Milwaukee, about 80% of the African American male students in the school attained below C average, and half were suspended. Additionally, slightly over 93% were expelled between 1978-1985 (Manzer, 2003). The investigators therefore proposed setting up Black male academies as a solution to the dilemma. They argued that the unique needs of the students in question required similarly unique curriculum, structure, and pedagogy to counter the problem. Washington was in support of this idea believing that the curriculum for the African American students should encompass training on mathematics as well as basic literacy. However, the opponents argued that segregation and gender exclusivity were unconstitutional Ladson-Billings, 2006). American intellectual and civil rights pioneer W.E.B. Du Bois argues that the students should have access to a liberal arts curriculum encompassing a full range of opportunities obtainable at the best educational institutions in the U.S.

Such intentions to segregate the schools re-emerged in late 80s but in a different version this time. For instance, the African American teachers were recruited by the institutions to take care of the special needs of the African American students in such institutions. In 1954 The African American activists had a belief that by desegregating the schools, there were high possibilities that the African American students would access quality education equally compared to their white counterparts (Ladson-Billings, 29006). This notion was never to be as the activists realized it had done more harm than good to the access to education by the African American students. The education opportunity Act made it illegal for institutions to segregate the students based on their race. This was further confirmed by the Supreme Court which ruled against segregation. However, the proponents of segregation seem determined to pursue their racial prejudice (Manzer, 2003). For instance, ion 1953 employers of the African American teachers dished out letters to the teachers noticing them of potential sacking ahead of the Supreme Court ruling. It is noteworthy that such discrimination seems far from over. Recently, the education opportunity Act was amended to pave way for opening of black male academies in the U.S. According to the amendment proposal, certain degree of contingency and exemptions will be allowed to those who want to open the schools. Bridging the gap between the white community and the African American community as well as ending the racial discrimination is still in limbo (Ladson-Billings, 2006).

4. Discuss the proposals for educational reforms made during the 1960 and 1970 Be sure to discuss the Elementary and Secondary Education Act or 1965 and the War on Poverty as well as attempts to reform education for various different groups. Be specific about the long-term effects of these reforms – how successful were they?

The United States government proposed Liberal legislation initiatives such as the National and immigration Act of 1965 in an attempt to allow access to education by immigrants from other countries other than U.S. The piece of legislation had a remarkable success as the number of international students from Caribbean as well as African American increased enormously. The Southern States also drafted proposal on plans that were intended to enhance unbiased access to education by both the white and African American students. The plan dubbed ‘Freedom of choice desegregation plan’ aimed at allowing the African American students access to the white-man schools without discrimination. Delkab County School for instance adopted the system in early 60s.

However, this system had little success as few Africans managed to join the White man’s institutions. The elementary and secondary Act of 1965 is an act which finances both the primary as well as secondary education but detests the formation of a national curriculum (Manzer, 2003). The funds may be used in financing professional development, parental involvement promotion as well as supporting educational programs. The Act therefore guides the allocation and utilization of education funds by educational institutions in enhancing education in their areas of jurisdiction. War on poverty is a legislation enacted in 1964 to counter the heightened national poverty levels experienced at that time. This legislation prompted the national congress to pass the economic opportunity Act which regulated the application of Federal funds meant to eradicate poverty through the establishment of HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Economic_Opportunity” o “Office of Economic Opportunity” Office of Economic Opportunity. This piece of legislation was very effective in reduction of poverty levels. For instance, such poverty levels dropped from 17.3% when the economic opportunity Act was implemented to 11.1% in 1973 (Manzer, 2003).

5. Describe the disparity of per student services between those in major cities and those in suburban areas. Explain the rationale of political and educational leaders to this condition? What do you feel is the basic cause of this disparity? How would you remedy it?

During the 1960-2000 periods, African Americans just like their white counterparts were migrating from interior black-dominated regions to the suburbs for search of better life including better housing, better health facilities, and even better education for their children. It is worth mentioning that the resource distribution across the whole county is greatly uneven with urban areas getting lions share and the rural areas the meager one (Ladson-Billings, 2006). The schools in urban areas are therefore well funded than in the major cities than the suburban regions. Consequently, the students pursuing their education in the urban schools are more privileged compared to their counterparts in the suburban areas. Political as well as educational leaders are involved in decision making that directly affect the allocation of resources to the schools across the country. Political leaders for instance are mandated to lobby for the reforms in all sectors of governance in case of the disparities in a sector (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Educational leaders on the other hand are supposed to implement the reforms so as to enhance the equal provision of quality education to both the urban as well as the suburban students. Causes of the aforementioned disparities are varied but the basic cause may be as a result of poor management or lack of political will. Leaders are basically involved in formulating policies that guide the allocation of resources to the various sectors and department. The leaders should therefore consider equitable distribution of resources in the educational sector to avoid the disparities witnessed between the urban schools and the suburban institutions (Ladson-Billings, 29006). Educational leaders on the other hand should properly manage the funds allocated to them to offset insufficiencies.

Reference List:

Berbe, C. (2008). The unfinished quest: the plight of progressive science education in the age of

standards. New York: IAP.

Ladson-Billings, G. & Tare, W, (2006). Education research in the public interest: social justice,

action, and policy. New York: Teachers College Press.

Manzer, R. (2003). Educational regimes and Anglo-American democracy. Toronto: University of

Toronto Press.